The abdication of King Juan Carlos announced on Monday turns a page in the volatile history of the monarchy in Spain, marked by a string of anti-royalist revolts.
Juan Carlos won respect for his role in the country's transition to democracy after the death of General Francisco Franco in 1975.
But experts warn that for many Spaniards, tolerance of his constitutional monarchy does not stretch much further.
"Beyond regard for King Juan Carlos himself, there is no very deep pro-monarchy feeling in Spain," said Jose Antonio Zarzalejos, a former director of the conservative newspaper ABC.
A vein of republicanism pulses in the country, where at anti-government street demonstrations the red, yellow and purple stripes of the old republican flag -- a relic of the 1930s -- are a common sight.
The historian Jose Varela Ortega says that Spain differs from other monarchies such as Britain in not having a deeply-rooted attachment to the monarchy.
Long in training to succeed Juan Carlos, his son Felipe -- military-trained, internationally-educated and polyglot -- has a serious image.
But he must win over a people traditionally ambivalent towards the royals.
"Most Spanish citizens are neither monarchist nor republican," Varela said.
"They consider that both are forms of government and, pragmatically speaking, they think that if one or the other works, either one is good."
Through centuries of European wars and uprisings, different forms of more or less repressive rule have come and gone in Spain.
Since the 16th century a series of foreign dynasties have ruled the country: Habsburgs, Bourbons, a Savoy and even a Bonaparte -- Joseph, brother of Napoleon.
"Spain has had many monarchies, but they have never been very close to the population. They have been forced monarchies," said Fermin Bouza, a sociologist at Madrid's Complutense University.
When Juan Carlos came to power, it was as the appointed successor of the dictator Franco, who rejected Juan Carlos's father as too liberal and groomed the son to reign.
Juan Carlos disappointed Francoists by supporting a transition to a parliamentary system of constitutional monarchy, overcoming widespread popular opposition to royalty at the time.
"Everything to do with the monarchy has been a bit forced, even though at some moments, such as the transition, it has served to calm people," said Bouza.
- From monarchy to republic -
Since the arrival in 1700 of the French Bourbon kings who centralised power in Spain, the popularity of the royals has risen and fallen.
The Enlightenment ruler Carlos III enjoyed strong support in the late 18th century, but overall "the Bourbons have had their periods of popularity and their periods of vilification," said Zarzalejos.
"Fernando VII was welcomed as king in 1808, but he ended up being a delinquent king," a despot who overturned Spain's treasured 1812 constitution, he added.
Fernando's daughter Isabel II (1833-1868) started out as "the great liberal queen", standing up to the allies of her uncle Carlos, but ended up being chased out by a revolution," Zarzalejos added.
Later, the unstable First Republic set up in 1873 lasted less than two years before the Bourbons were restored.
"The Republic has always been linked to social demands," gaining favour in times of popular unrest and traditionally associated with left-wing politics, said Bouza.
But even right-wing thinkers joined in the opposition to the current king's grandfather, Alfonso XIII, when he supported a military dictatorship in 1923, prompting a surge in republicanism.
That uprising spawned a revolt that led to Spain's Second Republic, which in turn was ended by Francisco Franco's victory in the Civil War, ushering in four decades of dictatorship.
Despite being chosen by Franco, Juan Carlos cemented widespread support in Spain by helping to foil an attempted military coup in 1981.
But late in life the king's popularity slumped as a corruption investigation led to his youngest daughter Cristina being declared a financial fraud suspect in January 2014.
Cristina, 48, came under suspicion during a judicial investigation into the business activities of her husband, former Olympic handball player Inaki Urdangarin.
Juan Carlos himself sparked an uproar by taking an expensive African elephant-hunting safari in 2012 while Spain struggled through a job-destroying recession.
Those scandals "reignited a debate that had not arisen seriously for many years: the question of a republic", said Bouza.
Historically speaking, the shift in attitudes to Juan Carlos in his later years was not so surprising.
Looking back in history, the pre-war republican revolt, for example, "was a foregone conclusion. You could see it coming," Bouza said. "And it could happen again at any moment."
The abdication of King Juan Carlos announced on Monday turns a page in the volatile history of the monarchy in Spain, marked by a string of anti-royalist revolts.
Juan Carlos won respect for his role in the country’s transition to democracy after the death of General Francisco Franco in 1975.
But experts warn that for many Spaniards, tolerance of his constitutional monarchy does not stretch much further.
“Beyond regard for King Juan Carlos himself, there is no very deep pro-monarchy feeling in Spain,” said Jose Antonio Zarzalejos, a former director of the conservative newspaper ABC.
A vein of republicanism pulses in the country, where at anti-government street demonstrations the red, yellow and purple stripes of the old republican flag — a relic of the 1930s — are a common sight.
The historian Jose Varela Ortega says that Spain differs from other monarchies such as Britain in not having a deeply-rooted attachment to the monarchy.
Long in training to succeed Juan Carlos, his son Felipe — military-trained, internationally-educated and polyglot — has a serious image.
But he must win over a people traditionally ambivalent towards the royals.
“Most Spanish citizens are neither monarchist nor republican,” Varela said.
“They consider that both are forms of government and, pragmatically speaking, they think that if one or the other works, either one is good.”
Through centuries of European wars and uprisings, different forms of more or less repressive rule have come and gone in Spain.
Since the 16th century a series of foreign dynasties have ruled the country: Habsburgs, Bourbons, a Savoy and even a Bonaparte — Joseph, brother of Napoleon.
“Spain has had many monarchies, but they have never been very close to the population. They have been forced monarchies,” said Fermin Bouza, a sociologist at Madrid’s Complutense University.
When Juan Carlos came to power, it was as the appointed successor of the dictator Franco, who rejected Juan Carlos’s father as too liberal and groomed the son to reign.
Juan Carlos disappointed Francoists by supporting a transition to a parliamentary system of constitutional monarchy, overcoming widespread popular opposition to royalty at the time.
“Everything to do with the monarchy has been a bit forced, even though at some moments, such as the transition, it has served to calm people,” said Bouza.
– From monarchy to republic –
Since the arrival in 1700 of the French Bourbon kings who centralised power in Spain, the popularity of the royals has risen and fallen.
The Enlightenment ruler Carlos III enjoyed strong support in the late 18th century, but overall “the Bourbons have had their periods of popularity and their periods of vilification,” said Zarzalejos.
“Fernando VII was welcomed as king in 1808, but he ended up being a delinquent king,” a despot who overturned Spain’s treasured 1812 constitution, he added.
Fernando’s daughter Isabel II (1833-1868) started out as “the great liberal queen”, standing up to the allies of her uncle Carlos, but ended up being chased out by a revolution,” Zarzalejos added.
Later, the unstable First Republic set up in 1873 lasted less than two years before the Bourbons were restored.
“The Republic has always been linked to social demands,” gaining favour in times of popular unrest and traditionally associated with left-wing politics, said Bouza.
But even right-wing thinkers joined in the opposition to the current king’s grandfather, Alfonso XIII, when he supported a military dictatorship in 1923, prompting a surge in republicanism.
That uprising spawned a revolt that led to Spain’s Second Republic, which in turn was ended by Francisco Franco’s victory in the Civil War, ushering in four decades of dictatorship.
Despite being chosen by Franco, Juan Carlos cemented widespread support in Spain by helping to foil an attempted military coup in 1981.
But late in life the king’s popularity slumped as a corruption investigation led to his youngest daughter Cristina being declared a financial fraud suspect in January 2014.
Cristina, 48, came under suspicion during a judicial investigation into the business activities of her husband, former Olympic handball player Inaki Urdangarin.
Juan Carlos himself sparked an uproar by taking an expensive African elephant-hunting safari in 2012 while Spain struggled through a job-destroying recession.
Those scandals “reignited a debate that had not arisen seriously for many years: the question of a republic”, said Bouza.
Historically speaking, the shift in attitudes to Juan Carlos in his later years was not so surprising.
Looking back in history, the pre-war republican revolt, for example, “was a foregone conclusion. You could see it coming,” Bouza said. “And it could happen again at any moment.”
